XLIII Scientific Instrument Symposium - SIC 2024

Session Chair: Edward Gillin (University College London, UK)

Chaîne opératoire : outil méthodologique d’étude du fonctionnement d’une institution scientifique
Auteur: Julien Gressot
L’étude du fonctionnement des institutions scientifiques s’est développée ces dernières années avec en particulier le croisement de l’analyse des sources manuscrites avec celle de la culture matérielle. Le concept de chaîne opératoire est une proposition méthodologique favorisant l’étude d’une institution scientifique dans sa globalité incluant les opérations techniques, matérielles, pratiques ou encore cognitives permettant, en bout de chaîne, d’obtenir des données précises. Il permet d’attirer l’attention sur l’intérêt d’étudier les instruments scientifiques en tant qu’ensemble opératoire permettant d’obtenir une donnée précise plutôt qu’en tant qu’entité isolée.

Utile pour comprendre les modalités de faire science, le concept attire également l’attention sur des opérations ou des instruments scientifiques généralement moins considérés car semblant d’une importance moindre. Ainsi cette proposition méthodologique entend faciliter à la fois la compréhension des phénomènes historiques mais permet aussi aux conservateurs-restaurateurs et aux muséologues un outil de médiation. Pouvant servir comme moyen heuristique ainsi que de synthèse permettant la comparaison entre différentes institutions ou différentes époques au sein d’un établissement, cette présentation entend aborder les apports et les limites du concept de chaîne opératoire en s’appuyant sur le cas de l’Observatoire cantonal de Neuchâtel.

Après une exploration de l’origines du concept, notamment par l’ethnologue préhistorien André Leroi-Gourhan et de son passage de l’archéologie à l’histoire des sciences, l’utilisation du concept sera exemplifiée à partir de l’Observatoire cantonal de Neuchâtel.

The Many Links in a Chain: Operating the Stockholm Observatory’s Ertel Meridian Circle, 1834-1931
Author: Johan Kärnfelt
In the 1820s, the Stockholm Observatory significantly upgraded its instrumentation. Among the new additions was a meridian circle, crafted by Traugott Ertel in Munich, which after considerable delay was installed at the observatory in 1834. This instrument featured a doublet lens manufactured by Merz, boasting an aperture of 11,4 cm and a focal length of 170 cm. Despite its capabilities, the instrument remained underutilized for the first forty years of its existence. This was largely due to the disinterest of the Observatory directors during that period, who did their main work in geodesy rather than in positional astronomy.

The instrument only realized its full potential when Hugo Gyldén assumed the role of Academy astronomer in 1871, effectively concluding the preceding geodetic era. Under Gyldén’s leadership, an ambitious zone project aiming at measuring the proper motions of 2000 northerly stars was conceived. The project would engage the observatory astronomers for over fifty years. The meridian circle eventually saw retirement when the Observatory relocated to a new, state-of-the-art facility in Saltsjöbaden in 1931. However, it found a new purpose as a training instrument and remained in use for many years to come.

In this paper, I will focus on the instrument's trajectory until its relocation to Saltsjöbaden, highlighting the many links that formed its chain of operation. Starting with technical links such as clocks and recording devices, I will move on to the human resources involved, including assistants and computers. Subsequently, I will delve into the scientific links, such as necessary star catalogues, before concluding with an examination of how the instrument was linked to society at large, particularly in the realms of geodetics and time signalling.

Creating Observatory Time at Dartmouth College in the 1860-70s.
Author: Richard Kremer
Part of the “observatory movement” in the United States, Dartmouth College’s Shattuck Observatory opened in 1853 with a 6.4-inch refractor by Merz & Mahler of Munich, a 4-inch transit telescope by Troughton & Simms of London, and an astronomical regulator by Utzschneider and Fraunhofer, also of Munich. But with only human (rather than mechanical) links between the clock and the transit telescope, the new observatory could correlate clock and sky time only to a precision of about a second. In this paper, I will examine how Charles A. Young, appointed professor of natural philosophy of astronomy at Dartmouth in 1866, sought to create observatory time by linking a seconds-beating clock electromagnetically to what he called a “printing chronograph” and to the finger of the astronomer “observing” transits. Surviving archival materials provide detailed views into Young’s efforts to build a reliable “operating chain” (Gressot) of pendula, clockworks, electromagnetic coils, mechanical governors, human sensory systems, observatory couches, and seeing conditions. Yet by 1877, when he departed Dartmouth for Princeton, Young had not reached his goal of timing celestial motions to hundredths of a second.

Time Services and Observatories: A Study Case of the Brazilian National Observatory.
Author: Sabina Luz
The time services at observatories were a daily activity that had to be continued for the purpose of keeping the time and, also, its precision. The instruments and methods employed were similar even in different contexts, countries, and cultures. However, the particularities of each observatory and its political, social, and cultural differences are important elements to be considered at the analyses of the scientific practices at time services in observatories. In this paper I will examine the time service at the National Observatory of Brazil at the first decade of 20th century. The time service was one of the main activities of this institution and it was connected to time transmission to Rio de Janeiro’s harbor. This service was provided by an active participation of mariners since the 19th century. The main instruments used for time calculation were a transit telescope by Dollond (256 x 169 x 97 cm) with 7 cm aperture, acquired in 1851 by the Observatory and used until 1920; a pendulum clock number 101 by Auguste Fénon, acquired probably in 1889; and several chronometers from different instrument makers, but all European. The instruments, the practices and the workers at the observatory will be analyzed in order to understand how an operating chain was established at this institution. Finally, the quest for precision at the astronomical time measurements and time keeping at this observatory will also be investigated not only as an element of the scientific practice but also as an aspect of advertising and scientific authority.

Session Chair: Johan Kärnfelt (Göteborgs universitet, Sweden)

Instruments and environmental change: applied geophysics at the Science Museum
Author: Alexandra Rose
In 1931, a special temporary exhibition at the Science Museum in London showcased an array of instruments for applied geophysics: seismic, magnetic, electrical and gravitational devices for oil and mineral prospecting. The exhibition’s curator, Herman Shaw, obtained an array of cutting-edge precision equipment for the displays, some not yet proven in the field; alongside these he reinterpreted existing artefacts in the Museum’s collection to present a narrative of technological development. In the context of an energy transition that was seeing a shift from coal to oil as an energy source, the exhibition was timely, and it also aligned with the objectives of the Museum’s governors to serve better the needs of industry. The exhibition was not merely a standalone display: it reflected the central and active role the Museum played in cultivating and promoting the new field of applied geophysics in Britain, resulting from the campaigns of politically-engaged scientists.

The topic of fossil fuel extraction, and the matter of how museums can effect social and environmental change, both have renewed pertinence today as the world faces an unprecedented climate crisis. This paper concludes by raising some open questions that will be the focus of planned future research. How might we reckon with the complex environmental legacies that some instruments – such as geophysical prospecting instruments – have left? Can historic, as well as contemporary, scientific instruments be mobilised by museums in their programmes of public engagement around the climate and environment? Could these collections even effect positive environmental change?

Attributing Precision to William Thomson’s Invention of Electrometry
Author: Daniel Jon Mitchell
The history of physics in Victorian Britain has given rise to two main socio-historiographical approaches concerning the origin of consensus about the precision of measurements: “centers of calculation” associated most closely with Schaffer and Latour, and “networks of trust” advocated in response by Gooday. The traditional opposition between these approaches, namely the role of trust and authority in the social processes that constitute precise measurement, masks an important point of agreement: “precision” is an attribute that emerges as a result of the successful assembly of chain of expertise, materials, instruments, procedures, and standards. Thus the precision of an instrument is made contingent upon extrinsic factors, to such an extent that calling an instrument “precise” lies somewhere between jumping the gun and making a category mistake.

This conclusion does not seem right. From a museological and a scientific viewpoint, there is something intuitive about ascribing precision to an instrument. In this paper, I explore the extent to which this intuition can be recaptured while preserving the insights of networks-of-trust and centers-of-calculation historiographies. I do so by returning to their origin in the history of Victorian physics through a study of William Thomson’s “precision” electrometers. I consider the extent to which the issue is a substantive or a semantic one, especially insofar as actors’ categories are involved. Previously neglected, the case merits careful consideration: Thomson was probably the most prolific and important inventor of so-called precision electrical measuring devices during the nineteenth century.

Breaking the Technological Monopoly: Initiating the Localization of Measuring Instruments through the UTD2000 Digital Oscilloscope
Author: Nianci Wang
Co-Authors: Ke Zhao, Deli Chen, Hongyin Lv
The invention of measuring instruments marks a pivotal shift for human beings from perceptual cognition to quantitative analysis. Since the 20^th century, electronic measuring instruments have been the key for gauging a nation’s scientific and technological prowess. In 2006, UNI-T, a Chinese firm seeking transformation, cooperated with the Institute of Electronic Testing Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China. The cooperation results in the development of the UTD2000 digital storage oscilloscope within a year. With a bandwidth of 200 MHz and a price of 300 euros per unit – one tenth of the international counterparts, Agilent and Tektronix – the UTD2000 quickly penetrated the China market. It catered to applications requiring bandwidths below 500MHz with sales of 30000 units per year. Notably, it became one of the earliest Chinese electronic measuring instrument exported to Europe, Brazil, and beyond.

In the transition of scientific research to market-ready products, the monopoly of technology becomes apparent, with technology serving as the key competitive asset. Established companies erect barriers, hindering newcomers through technical obstacles. When new companies manage to overcome these technology barriers, they still face the challenge of dealing with the low price set by the established ones. This research looks at how the UTD2000, a Chinese electronic measuring instrument, went from being developed to being sold internationally in the 2000s. It examines the decisions made by companies, government policies, and market fluctuations. Ultimately, it explores how scientific instruments can shake up the dominance of established companies, leading to innovations in a region.

The Keepers of Time / Historic Schools for Watchmakers in North America
Author: Gary Fox
By the mid 1880’s The American watch manufacturing industry was producing over 750,000 watches annually and given their mechanized processes, that number was increasing exponentially every year.
Producing over 2,000,000 watches annually, the Swiss industry believed there was little to fear from the American upstarts, until it was too late to see the looming change.  However, the Swiss industry recognized the need for trained watchmakers to maintain and repair the watches they produced long before their American counterparts. Schools were opened where the students learned not just how to repair a broken part but why the parts were designed as they were.
In the Americas, watchmakers were trained through apprenticeships and mentorships, a lengthy process with often dubious results. The result? There simply weren’t enough skilled watchmakers to meet the need.
The call went out for horological schools where a student could learn more in a year than in three years as an apprentice. But was anyone listening? James Parsons was.
This is the story of:

• the first school for watchmakers in North America – Parsons Horological Institute opened by James Root Parsons in La Porte, Indiana in 1886;
• the first school for watchmakers in Canada – The Canadian Horological Institute opened by Henry Richard Playtner in Toronto, Ontario in 1890, and;
• the Elgin Watchmakers’ College, started in 1922 by Playtner and funded by the Elgin National Watch Company.

Session Chair: Sabina Luz (UNIRIO, Brazil)

Dé-instrumentaliser l’instrument scientifique: l’exemple d’un restituteur planimétrique radial au Musée de la civilisation
Auteur: Valérie Bouchard
Pour un musée de société comme le Musée de la civilisation, le collectionnement d’objets scientifiques ne va pas toujours de soi, ces objets étant souvent associés à des institutions dont la mission est d’emblée scientifique. Pourtant, les innovations et développements technologiques et scientifiques ne surviennent pas en vase clos, mais sont au contraire étroitement liés à des préoccupations, à des intérêts ou à des besoins sociaux.

C’est dans cette perspective et dans la posture pratique qu’est celle d’une conservatrice de musée que cette communication propose de réinterroger l’instrument scientifique, à partir de l’exemple d’un restituteur planimétrique radial associé à la compagnie Donohue et récemment acquis par le Musée de la civilisation. Cette communication sera l’occasion d’explorer des pistes de mise en valeur d’un tel instrument, en allant au-delà de son cadre strictement fonctionnel, pour aborder plutôt ses dimensions historiques et sociales et les échos qu’il peut avoir pour les publics du Musée aujourd’hui. De cette approche émergera non seulement le caractère polysémique de cet instrument, mais également des questionnements plus larges sur les frontières de l’objet scientifique. Ces réflexions permettront ainsi d’envisager la manière dont le musée de société peut contribuer à jeter un nouvel éclairage sur la conservation et la diffusion du patrimoine scientifique.

Upgrading Scientific Instruments Over Time Towards a Culture of Precision: Case studies from Coimbra University
Author: Pedro Júlio Enrech Casaleiro
Co-Author: Fábio Monteiro
The Coimbra Observatory houses an impressive collection of scientific instruments, ranging from astronomy and geodesy from the Royal Astronomical Observatory of the University of Coimbra since 1772, to meteorology, magnetism and seismology from the Geophysical Institute since 1864. This collection reflects the scientific endeavours throughout the history of the institutions, intertwined with the progress of science, dependent on its key figures (scientists, professors, staff), as well as the fluctuations of university administration, national governance and global influence. Both institutions were founded during periods of scientific vitality that paved the way for new paths in science, culminating in the current collections.

The research began with a comprehensive analysis of the collections, identifying trends in acquisitions over time, to serve the research and teaching endeavours of the University of Coimbra, with the aim of increasing the accuracy and precision of the data. This is followed by a more detailed examination of case studies of astronomical position and time instruments. It identifies the criteria and acquisition framework of these instruments, taking into account institutional dynamics, personnel and the use of new instruments. This project is based on the study of objects through documentary research in the university archives and libraries.

Acknowledgements: The CQC–IMS is supported by the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT), through the projects UI0313B/QUI/2020 (DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/00313/2020), UI0313P/QUI/2020 (DOI: 10.54499/UIDP/00313/2020), and LA/P/0056/2020.

The ‘Kosmic Clock’ – A Rare and Valuable Artifact
Author: Ray Springer
Introduction
The traditional definition of local time
The Industrial Revolution and the rise in railroad travel in North America - issues
A tipping point in 1865

Examples of proposed time framework solutions
Sandford Fleming’s 24 hour day and ‘Cosmic Time’
The International Meridian Conference (IMC) of 1884 - a prime meridian

The ‘Kosmic’ Clock
Post IMC, 3 clock patents were obtained by inventor Martin V. B. Ethridge
6 ‘Kosmic’ Clocks manufactured by the E. Howard Clock Co., Boston
‘Kosmic’ features: patented 24 hour Ethridge dial, spindles and an additional hand
One ‘Kosmic’ sent to the Royal Canadian Institute (for Science) by Mr. E. Waite

Outcomes
Sandford Fleming supported the IMC proposal
Fleming did not endorse the ‘Kosmic’ however …

Conclusion
The ‘Kosmic’ Clock is a rare and valuable artifact. The context of its creation helps to better understand the journey towards a new model for local time and the implementation of a Prime Meridian and international time zones

Restoration
The ‘Kosmic’ Clock was restored by Dan Hudon, Master Clock Restorer of the Ottawa Valley Watch and Clock Club and his assistant Andrea Gilpin
Ray Springer
OVWCC Treasurer 2012-2022

A Torsion Balance in the Faculty of Physics of the University of Barcelona
Author: Júlia Garcia de la Torre
FFUB-0291 is one of the hundreds of instruments in the collection of the Faculty of Physics of the University of Barcelona. This torsion balance, built by french manufacturer Pixii, arrived in the University of Barcelona in 1847 within the frame of 'Pla Pidal', an education reform approved in 1845.  

Its form and history have been shaped by its scientific and historical contexts: from its role as an agent of modernisation of the Spanish educational system to its function within lectures of establishing experimentation as the only path to true knowledge. By the creation of its biography and the replication of its use, I have studied the possible links between the apparatus and its historical and scientific contexts, as well as contributed to the controversy surrounding Coulomb's experiment.